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    als或mla是什么意思(als是什么意思?。?/h1>
    發(fā)布時(shí)間:2023-04-13 13:30:30     稿源: 創(chuàng)意嶺    閱讀: 93        

    大家好!今天讓創(chuàng)意嶺的小編來大家介紹下關(guān)于als或mla是什么意思的問題,以下是小編對(duì)此問題的歸納整理,讓我們一起來看看吧。

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    本文目錄:

    als或mla是什么意思(als是什么意思?。?  src=

    一、APA與MLA的引文格式有什么區(qū)別?

    引文的格式可采用文中夾注、腳注和尾注的形式,MLA和APA格式中一般不采用腳注或尾注,而使用文中夾注的形式。本文小編為大家解析兩者引文的區(qū)別。

    1.文中夾注(Parenthetical Citation)

    注釋要包括作者姓名、書名、出版地、出版社、出版時(shí)間及頁(yè)碼。引文較短時(shí),要用雙引號(hào)括起來,引文與正文融為一體。如果作者已在文中出現(xiàn),注釋中就不再列作者的名字;當(dāng)引文較長(zhǎng)時(shí)(四行或超過四行),引文要另起一段,縮進(jìn)五個(gè)空格,不用引號(hào);多個(gè)作者在第二次被提到時(shí)可用第一個(gè)作者的姓加et al.;引文是翻譯材料時(shí)要注明最初出版時(shí)間和翻譯時(shí)間。MLA格式要求標(biāo)明作者的姓和頁(yè)數(shù),它們之間沒有逗號(hào)。APA格式要求括號(hào)里標(biāo)明作者姓名、出版日期,引文的其他信息可在參考文獻(xiàn)中找到。

    2.腳注(Footnotes)與尾注(Endnotes)的使用

    腳注寫在該頁(yè)最后一行下面數(shù)四行的位置。如果該頁(yè)有兩個(gè)以上的腳注,腳注之間需要隔行。在正文中的引語(直接或間接)處的上方標(biāo)上阿拉伯?dāng)?shù)字,腳注也標(biāo)上相應(yīng)的數(shù)字。腳注的字體必須與正文一樣,可使用單倍行距,但相鄰腳注之間應(yīng)空1.5行。在MLA的規(guī)范里,腳注只應(yīng)在下列兩種情況中考慮使用:(1)提供有一定重要性、但寫入正文將有損文本條理和邏輯的解釋性信息;(2)提供因篇幅過大不宜使用括號(hào)夾注注明的文獻(xiàn)出處信息。在APA的規(guī)范里腳注僅僅在上述第一種情況下可以使用。

    尾注要另起一頁(yè),放在該章的最后一頁(yè),標(biāo)上Notes,隔行打印。引語處的上方要標(biāo)上阿拉伯?dāng)?shù)字,尾注也同樣標(biāo)出相應(yīng)的數(shù)字。

    例子:E.Nwezeh,“The Comparative Approach To Modern African Literature,”Yearbook of General and Comparative Literature,no.28(1979):22.

    3.引用整篇文獻(xiàn)觀點(diǎn)

    引用整篇文獻(xiàn)觀點(diǎn)時(shí)有兩種情況:

    ①作者的姓氏在正文中沒有出現(xiàn):

    MLA:Charlotte and Emily Bronte were polar opposites,not only in their personalities but in their sources of inspiration for writing.(Taylor)

    APA:Charlotte and Emily Bronte were polar opposites,not only in their personalities but in their sources of inspiration for writing.(Taylor,1990)

    ②.作者的姓氏在正文同一句中已經(jīng)出現(xiàn):

    MLA:不需要使用括號(hào)夾注

    APA:不需要在括號(hào)夾注中重復(fù)作者的姓,如姓氏和文獻(xiàn)出版年份均已出現(xiàn),則不需要使用夾注。

    在英文撰寫的論文中引用中文著作或者期刊,括號(hào)夾注中只需用漢語拼音標(biāo)明作者的姓氏,不得使用漢字,如:MLA:(Zhu 12)APA:(Zhang,2005)

    4.引用文獻(xiàn)中具體觀點(diǎn)或文字

    引用文獻(xiàn)中某一引用文獻(xiàn)中具體觀點(diǎn)或文字具體觀點(diǎn)或文字時(shí)必須注明該觀點(diǎn)或者該段文字出現(xiàn)的頁(yè)碼,沒有頁(yè)碼是文獻(xiàn)引用不規(guī)范的表現(xiàn)。例如:

    MLA:Monasteries in medieval Europe were not short of speculations about Greek inventions(Marcuse190-203).

    APA:Newmark(1988,pp.39-40)notes three characteristically expressive text-types:(a)seriousimaginative literature(e.g.lyrical poetry);(b)authoritative statements(political speeches anddocuments,statutes and legal documents,philosophical and academic works by acknowledgedauthorities);(C)autobiography,essays,personal correspondence(when these are personaleffusions).

    注意在這些例子中引文超過一頁(yè)時(shí)的頁(yè)碼標(biāo)記方法:MLA引文格式的規(guī)范是(Marcuse 190-203),而APA的規(guī)范是(1988,pp.39-40)。

    二、als早期癥狀是什么

    病因

    肌萎縮側(cè)索硬化的病因至今不明。20%的病例可能與遺傳及基因缺陷有關(guān)。另外有部分環(huán)境因素,如遺傳、重金屬中毒等,都可能造成運(yùn)動(dòng)神經(jīng)元損害。產(chǎn)生運(yùn)動(dòng)神經(jīng)元損害的原因,目前主要理論有:

    1.神經(jīng)毒性物質(zhì)累積,谷氨酸堆積在神經(jīng)細(xì)胞之間,久而久之,造成神經(jīng)細(xì)胞的損傷。

    2.自由基使神經(jīng)細(xì)胞膜受損。

    3.神經(jīng)生長(zhǎng)因子缺乏,使神經(jīng)細(xì)胞無法持續(xù)生長(zhǎng)、發(fā)育。

    2臨床表現(xiàn)

    早期癥狀輕微,易與其他疾病混淆?;颊呖赡苤皇歉械接幸恍o力、肉跳、容易疲勞等一些癥狀,漸漸進(jìn)展為全身肌肉萎縮和吞咽困難。最后產(chǎn)生呼吸衰竭。

    依臨床癥狀大致可分為兩型:

    1.肢體起病型

    癥狀首先是四肢肌肉進(jìn)行性萎縮、無力,最后才產(chǎn)生呼吸衰竭。

    2.延髓起病型

    在四肢運(yùn)動(dòng)還好之時(shí),就已經(jīng)出現(xiàn)吞咽、講話困難,很快就進(jìn)展為呼吸衰竭。

    3檢查

    要早期診斷肌萎縮側(cè)索硬化,除了神經(jīng)科臨床檢查外,還需做肌電圖、神經(jīng)傳導(dǎo)速度檢測(cè)、血清特殊抗體檢查、腰穿腦脊液檢查、影像學(xué)檢查,甚至肌肉活檢。

    4診斷

    1.病史采集和神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)檢查

    診斷過程的第一個(gè)重要步驟,就是由神經(jīng)科醫(yī)生進(jìn)行的臨床接診。進(jìn)行包括詳細(xì)的現(xiàn)病史,家庭史,工作和環(huán)境接觸史的采集。接診過程中,神經(jīng)科醫(yī)生將尋找肌萎縮側(cè)索硬化的典型表現(xiàn):

    (1)患者往往只有一只手臂或一條腿肌肉無力,以及聲音性質(zhì)的變化如含糊不清或言語遲緩。檢查要評(píng)估咀嚼和吞咽的肌肉力量,包括口腔、舌及咽喉肌。

    (2)下運(yùn)動(dòng)神經(jīng)元(LMN)功能,如肌肉萎縮情況,肌肉力量或肌肉跳動(dòng)(稱為肌束震顫)。

    (3)上運(yùn)動(dòng)神經(jīng)元(UMN)功能,如腱反射亢進(jìn)和肌肉痙攣(肌肉緊張和僵直的程度)

    (4)情緒反應(yīng)失去控制,如哭或笑的情緒變化。思維的變化如喪失判斷力或失去基本的社會(huì)技能。檢查者也會(huì)評(píng)估患者言語流暢性及文字識(shí)別能力。這些癥狀不常見,不容易引起重視。

    (5)神經(jīng)科醫(yī)生還將詢問如疼痛,感覺喪失或錐體外系問題(在帕金森病經(jīng)常看到不同類型的肌肉強(qiáng)直)。

    2.輔助檢查

    診斷過程的下一步往往是一系列的輔助檢查,如頸部MRI(磁共振成像)、頭和腰MRI,EMG(肌電圖)、神經(jīng)傳導(dǎo)速度和血液化驗(yàn)。有時(shí)會(huì)做基因檢測(cè)或腰椎穿刺。

    (1)磁共振成像(MRI) 是一種無痛、非侵入性的檢查,能非常詳細(xì)提供脊髓和環(huán)繞、保護(hù)脊髓的骨骼及結(jié)締組織的結(jié)構(gòu)。將有助于除外對(duì)脊髓或主要神經(jīng)的壓迫(如突出的椎間盤)、多發(fā)性硬化、骨腫瘤壓迫神經(jīng)等異常、脊髓或腦中風(fēng)。

    (2)肌電圖(EMG)

    是診斷過程一個(gè)非常重要的部分。該檢查有時(shí)不舒服,但有必要完成。第一部分通過小型電極在特定部位發(fā)送刺激經(jīng)過所檢測(cè)的神經(jīng),在另一部位接受信號(hào)。根據(jù)所

    需時(shí)間測(cè)定傳導(dǎo)速度以判斷是否有神經(jīng)損傷。第二部分測(cè)試選定肌肉的電活動(dòng)。通過很細(xì)的針插入到選定的肌肉,并用它來“聽”這些肌肉的電活動(dòng)模式。

    (3)血液、尿液和其他檢查 驗(yàn)血是為了篩查其他疾病,有些疾病癥狀類似肌萎縮側(cè)索硬化早期跡象。這些檢查包括甲狀腺或甲狀旁腺疾病、維生素B12缺乏、艾滋病毒感染、肝炎、

    自身免疫性疾病以及某些類型的癌癥。肌酸激酶(CK)是肌肉受傷或死亡釋放的酶,也常檢查。其他還包括自身免疫抗體、抗-GM1抗體檢測(cè),尋找可能與某些

    癌癥有關(guān)的血液標(biāo)志物。根據(jù)患者工作和環(huán)境,也可能做重金屬檢測(cè)。如果家庭里其他成員患肌萎縮側(cè)索硬化應(yīng)該做肌萎縮側(cè)索硬化基因檢測(cè)。有時(shí)可能需要腰穿。

    有些患者除無力外,有疼痛或肌酸磷酸激酶(CK)非常高的表現(xiàn),可能需要肌肉活檢。

    3.診斷

    這些檢查完成后,有經(jīng)驗(yàn)的神經(jīng)科大夫就可以判斷患者是否為肌萎縮側(cè)索硬化。有時(shí)確診所需要的癥狀和檢查結(jié)果并非都異常(尤其是在疾病的最早階段)。在這種情況下,神經(jīng)科大夫會(huì)檢查建議隨診,3個(gè)月后重復(fù)體檢和肌電圖。

    5治療

    盡早地做出診斷和鑒別診斷,盡早地給予神經(jīng)保護(hù)和支持治療,如力如太及其他藥物,堅(jiān)持定期隨訪。

    1.一般療法

    支持療法:對(duì)癥治療,適當(dāng)鍛煉。如注意呼吸道、消化道的功能。若口水多,可給予少量抗阻胺藥;若痰多,可給予霧化吸入及化痰藥;如出現(xiàn)情緒低落,與以抗抑郁治療等。此外,還要多翻身以防止褥瘡發(fā)生。如進(jìn)食障礙,給予鼻飼或經(jīng)皮胃造瘺(PEG)。

    2.特殊療法

    目前國(guó)際承認(rèn)、且惟一通過美國(guó)食品藥物監(jiān)督局(FDA)批準(zhǔn)治療肌萎縮側(cè)索硬化的藥物為力如太(Rilutek),并且一定要盡早使用。

    3.呼吸治療

    開始呼吸不順時(shí),可使用一般氧氣或使用雙正壓呼吸機(jī)(BiBAP)幫助呼吸,發(fā)生進(jìn)一步呼吸衰竭時(shí),則需氣管切開,使用人工呼吸機(jī)。

    4.研究進(jìn)展

    目前國(guó)際上正嘗試以神經(jīng)營(yíng)養(yǎng)因子、抗氧化劑如維生素E、維生素C以及肌酸、CoQ10等與力如太聯(lián)合應(yīng)用,以對(duì)肌萎縮側(cè)索硬化進(jìn)行保護(hù)性治療。但上述治療還有待于臨床試驗(yàn)的證實(shí)。此外,科學(xué)家們也正在進(jìn)行有關(guān)本病基因治療的實(shí)驗(yàn)研究。

    三、呼吸困難、構(gòu)音障礙肌萎縮是漸凍人癥?

    肌肉萎縮,大多數(shù)表現(xiàn)為肌無力和肌肉量減少,而肌無力和肌肉量減少,一般會(huì)出現(xiàn)以下幾種癥狀:一,跑步和跳躍的困難,跑步和跳躍困難是肌肉營(yíng)養(yǎng)不良的首要癥狀之一。二、頻繁跌倒,肌無力和肌肉量減少是患者頻繁跌倒的主要原因。三、步態(tài)蹣跚,四、肌肉疼痛和僵硬。五、骨質(zhì)疏松,由于長(zhǎng)期肌肉營(yíng)養(yǎng)不良,而導(dǎo)致鈣流失過快引起的骨質(zhì)疏松。六,學(xué)習(xí)障礙。

    肌肉萎縮癥是漸凍癥的臨床表現(xiàn)之一,不是所有的肌肉萎縮都是漸凍癥。

    首先,漸凍癥是肌肉萎縮型側(cè)索硬化綜合征,主要是由于上運(yùn)動(dòng)神經(jīng)元和下運(yùn)動(dòng)神經(jīng)元損傷之后,導(dǎo)致球部,四肢軀干,胸腹部肌肉,逐漸無力和萎縮,漸凍癥是一個(gè)逐漸加重的過程,甚至全身的肌肉逐漸萎縮,最后造成吞咽困難,呼吸困難,最終導(dǎo)致死亡。

    肌肉萎縮還有很多原因,比如說廢用性的萎縮,所以肌萎縮不能說是一種漸凍癥,但是漸凍癥肯定會(huì)造成肌肉的萎縮。漸凍癥,醫(yī)學(xué)上又稱之為“肌萎縮側(cè)索硬化癥”,是運(yùn)動(dòng)神經(jīng)元疾病的一種,病癥會(huì)表現(xiàn)為累及上下運(yùn)動(dòng)神經(jīng)元的周圍性癱瘓。

    漸凍癥早期,可能會(huì)出現(xiàn)像是突然間的摔倒以及運(yùn)動(dòng)能力的喪失等癥狀,隨著病程的深入,會(huì)出現(xiàn)不同程度的肌肉萎縮,直至最后出現(xiàn)呼吸障礙。

    漸凍癥又被稱為“世界五大罕見疾病”之一,由于其發(fā)病機(jī)制目前尚未明確,只能采取像是協(xié)一力利魯唑片等的藥物進(jìn)行維持,盡可能延緩患者出現(xiàn)呼吸障礙的時(shí)間,進(jìn)而推遲氣管切開時(shí)間。

    四、MLA和APA格式的區(qū)別

    參考文獻(xiàn)引用的規(guī)范應(yīng)該按專業(yè)方向的不同選擇使用MLA(the Modern Language Association)或者APA(the American Psychological Association),一般偏重人文學(xué)科的應(yīng)用MLA,偏重自然學(xué)科的應(yīng)用APA。學(xué)位申請(qǐng)人應(yīng)認(rèn)真閱讀相應(yīng)的規(guī)范使用手冊(cè)。本節(jié)提供部分實(shí)例,供參考。

    3.1 正文中的引證

    學(xué)位論文引用別人的觀點(diǎn)、方法、言論必須注明出處,注明出處時(shí)應(yīng)該使用括號(hào)夾注的方法,一般不使用腳注或者尾注。

    3.1.1 引用整篇文獻(xiàn)的觀點(diǎn)

    引用整篇文獻(xiàn)(即全書或全文)觀點(diǎn)時(shí)有兩種情況,一種是作者的姓氏在正文中沒有出現(xiàn),如:

    MLA:

    Charlotte and Emily Bronte were polar opposites, not only in their personalities but in their sources of inspiration for writing (Taylor).

    APA:

    Charlotte and Emily Bronte were polar opposites, not only in their personalities but in their sources of inspiration for writing (Taylor, 1990).

    另一種情況是作者的姓氏已在正文同一句中出現(xiàn),按MLA的規(guī)范不需要使用括號(hào)夾注,如:

    MLA:

    Taylor claims that Charlotte and Emily Bronte were polar opposites, not only in their personalities but in their sources of inspiration for writing.

    而按APA的規(guī)范則沒有必要在括號(hào)夾注中重復(fù)作者的姓,如:

    APA:

    Taylor claims that Charlotte and Emily Bronte were polar opposites, not only in their personalities but in their sources of inspiration for writing (1990).

    如果作者的姓氏和文獻(xiàn)出版年份均已在正文同一句中出現(xiàn),按APA的規(guī)范不需使用括號(hào)夾注,如:

    APA:

    In a 1990 article, Taylor claims that Charlotte and Emily Bronte were polar opposites, not only in their personalities but in their sources of inspiration for writing.

    在英文撰寫的論文中引用中文著作或者期刊,括號(hào)夾注中只需用漢語拼音標(biāo)明作者的姓氏,不得使用漢字,如:

    MLA:

    (Zhu 12)

    APA:

    (Zhang, 2005)

    3.1.2 引用文獻(xiàn)中具體觀點(diǎn)或文字

    引用文獻(xiàn)中某一具體觀點(diǎn)或文字時(shí)必須注明該觀點(diǎn)或者該段文字出現(xiàn)的頁(yè)碼,沒有頁(yè)碼是文獻(xiàn)引用不規(guī)范的表現(xiàn)。例如:

    MLA:

    Ancient writers attributed the invention of the monochord to Pythagoras, who lived in the sixth century BC (Marcuse 197).

    Monasteries in medieval Europe were not short of speculations about Greek inventions (Marcuse 190-203).

    APA:

    Emily Bronte “expressed increasing hostility for the world of human relationships, whether sexual or social” (Taylor, 1988, p. 11).

    Newmark (1988, pp. 39-40) notes three characteristically expressive text-types: (a) serious imaginative literature (e.g. lyrical poetry); (b) authoritative statements (political speeches and documents, statutes and legal documents, philosophical and academic works by acknowledged authorities); (c) autobiography, essays, personal correspondence (when these are personal effusions).

    注意在這些例子中引文超過一頁(yè)時(shí)的頁(yè)碼標(biāo)記方法:MLA的規(guī)范是(Marcuse 190-203),而 APA的規(guī)范是(1988, pp. 39-40)。

    假若作者的姓氏已在正文同一句中出現(xiàn),則不需要在括號(hào)夾注中重復(fù),如:

    MLA:

    Ancient writers, according to Marcuse, attributed the invention of the monochord to Pythagoras, who lived in the sixth century BC (197).

    APA:

    Taylor writes that Emily Bronte “expressed increasing hostility for the world of human relationships, whether sexual or social” (1988, p. 11).

    3.1.3 引用多位作者寫作的同一文獻(xiàn)

    MLA(二至三位作者):

    Among intentional spoonerisms, the “punlike metathesis of distinctive features may serve to weld together words etymologically unrelated but close in their sound and meaning” (Jakobson and Waugh 304).

    (如果有三位作者,在括號(hào)夾注中應(yīng)用逗號(hào)分隔他們的姓氏,如:(Alton, Davies, and Rice 56)。)

    MLA(三位以上的作者):

    The study was extended for two years, and only after results were reviewed by an independent panel did the researchers publish their findings (Blaine et al. 35).

    APA(兩位作者):

    Research (Yamada & Matsuura, 1982) reports the poor performance of advanced English learners who could use English articles correctly only in 70 percent of the cases.

    注意兩種規(guī)范的括號(hào)夾注中分別使用“and”與“&”。

    APA(三至五位作者)

    第一次引用:

    According to educational psychologists, raising children is a responsibility of the entire community (Franklin, Childs, & Smith, 1995).

    以后的引用:

    To be successful, “communities must be willing to take this responsibility” (Franklin et al., 1995, p. 135).

    APA(五位以上的作者):

    Patterns of byzantine intrigue have long plagued the internal politics of community college administration in Texas (Douglas et al., 2003)

    3.1.4 引用同樣姓氏的不同作者

    假若兩個(gè)或兩個(gè)以上的作者有同樣的姓氏,則括號(hào)夾注中應(yīng)同時(shí)使用他們名字的首字母,如:

    MLA:

    Although some medical ethicists claim that cloning will lead to designer children (R. Miller 12), others note that the advantages for medical research outweigh this consideration (A. Miller 46).

    APA:

    Well-established SLA researchers (e.g., R. Ellis, 2002) seem rather skeptical of the assertion that repetition alone explains the development of the knowledge of a second language (N. Ellis, 2002).

    引用中文著作或期刊時(shí)同姓作者的情況較多,應(yīng)在括號(hào)夾注中使用他們名字的首字母加以區(qū)分,如:

    MLA:

    (S.R. Wang 26) (J.X. Wang 30)

    APA:

    (W.Y. Wang, 2003) (L.F. Wang, 2003, p. 213)

    3.1.5 引用團(tuán)體作者(corporate author)

    引用團(tuán)體作者的作品,括號(hào)夾注中應(yīng)使用團(tuán)體的名稱,如:

    MLA:

    It was apparent that the American health care system needed “to be fixed and perhaps radically modified” (Public Agenda Foundation 4).

    APA:

    Retired officers retain access to all of the university's educational and recreational facilities (Columbia University, 1987, p. 54).

    3.1.6 引用無作者文獻(xiàn)

    引用無作者文獻(xiàn),如果文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)題沒有出現(xiàn)在正文里,則括號(hào)夾注中應(yīng)使用該標(biāo)題或者(如果標(biāo)題過長(zhǎng)的話)使用該標(biāo)題中的關(guān)鍵詞組,如:

    MLA:

    An anonymous Wordsworth critic once argued that his poems were too emotional (“Wordsworth Is A Loser” 100).

    APA:

    (“Mad Cow,” 2001) 或者 (Sleep Medicine, 2001)

    在使用關(guān)鍵詞組時(shí)應(yīng)該選擇標(biāo)題開始部分的詞組。

    無論是MLA還是APA的規(guī)范,獨(dú)立出版物的標(biāo)題或者標(biāo)題中的關(guān)鍵詞組用斜體標(biāo)出,出版物內(nèi)含的作品的名稱以及未出版的作品(講演、論文等)的標(biāo)題或者標(biāo)題中的關(guān)鍵詞組用引號(hào)標(biāo)出。

    3.1.7 引用書信、談話中的觀點(diǎn)或文字

    書信和談話(含電子郵件、訪談、電話等)無法在正文后面的參考文獻(xiàn)中列出,但應(yīng)該在正文中使用括號(hào)夾注的方法注明出處。例如:

    MLA:

    Jesse Moore (telephone conversation, May 12, 1989) admitted the need for an in-depth analysis of the otherness expressed in the work.

    APA:

    Mira Ariel (e-mail, April 17, 2004) confirmed that accessibility marking played a crucial role in discourse organization.

    Researchers may observe that Chinese English majors with no overseas experience often have a better command of English than American foreign language majors with no overseas experience have of the language they study (Eugene Nida, personal communication, November 8, 1986).

    3.1.8 引用同一作者的多篇文獻(xiàn)

    按MLA規(guī)范,引用同一作者的多篇文獻(xiàn)時(shí),在括號(hào)夾注中應(yīng)加入文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)題中的關(guān)鍵詞組,如:

    Lightenor has argued that computers are not useful tools for small children (“Too Soon” 38), though he has acknowledged that early exposure to computer games does lead to better small motor skill development (“Hand-Eye Development” 17).

    或者

    Computers are not useful tools for small children (Lightenor, “Too Soon” 38), though he has acknowledged that early exposure to computer games does lead to better small motor skill development (Lightenor, “Hand-Eye Development” 17).

    或者

    Lightenor has argued that computers are not useful tools for small children, though he has acknowledged that early exposure to computer games does lead to better small motor skill development (“Too Soon” 38 and “Hand-Eye Development” 17).

    按APA規(guī)范,同一作者的不同文獻(xiàn)可用出版年份來區(qū)別,如:

    (Zhang, 1997) (Zhang, 1999) (Zhang, 2004)

    括號(hào)夾注還可以表示同一作者的多篇文獻(xiàn),文獻(xiàn)按發(fā)表次序排列,如:

    (Zhang, 1997, 1999, 2004)

    同一年份發(fā)表的文獻(xiàn)應(yīng)對(duì)年份另加字母,以示區(qū)別(正文后參考文獻(xiàn)著錄中相應(yīng)的條目里的年份應(yīng)加同樣的字母),如:

    (Bloom, 2003a, 2003b)

    3.1.9 同時(shí)引用不同作者的多篇文獻(xiàn)

    括號(hào)夾注可以包括不同作者的多篇文獻(xiàn),文獻(xiàn)按作者姓氏的字母順序排列(注意分號(hào)的使用),如:

    MLA:

    The dangers of mountain lions to humans have been well documented (Rychnovsky 40; Seidensticker 114; Williams 30).

    APA:

    Distance from health care providers, lack of transportation, lack of health care providers, lack of information about the disease and various treatment options, poverty and social isolation due to geography are all factors which affect treatment decisions of rural clients (Brown, 2001; Sullivan, Weinert & Fulton, 1993; Weinert & Burman, 1994).

    在MLA的規(guī)范中,如果不同作者的多篇文獻(xiàn)過于冗長(zhǎng),則不用括號(hào)夾注,而使用腳注(見第3.1.12節(jié))。

    3.1.10 引用非直接文獻(xiàn)(indirect source)

    論文應(yīng)盡可能避免使用非直接文獻(xiàn)(即二級(jí)文獻(xiàn)secondary source),但在無法找到直接文獻(xiàn)(即一級(jí)文獻(xiàn)primary source)的情況下,引文可以從非直接文獻(xiàn)中析出,例如:

    MLA:

    Samuel Johnson admitted that Edmund Burke was an “extraordinary man” (qtd. in Boswell 2: 450).

    (注意:“qtd. in”中的字母“i”不得大寫。)

    APA:

    Grayson (as cited in Murzynski & Degelman, 1996, p. 135) identified four components of body language that were related to judgments of vulnerability.

    One researcher (Grayson, as cited in Murzynski & Degelman, 1996, p. 135) identified four components of body language that were related to judgments of vulnerability.

    引用非直接文獻(xiàn)以后,在正文后參考文獻(xiàn)著錄中只需列入該非直接文獻(xiàn)的條目(即上述實(shí)例中的“Boswell”和“Murzynski & Degelman, 1996”)。

    3.1.11 引用文學(xué)作品和經(jīng)典文獻(xiàn)

    按MLA的規(guī)范,有幾種情況括號(hào)夾注內(nèi)不標(biāo)頁(yè)碼。

    在引用劇本時(shí)應(yīng)標(biāo)出引文的幕、場(chǎng)、行,如:

    In his famous advice to players, Shakespeare’s Hamlet defines the purpose of theater, “whose end, both at the first and now, was and is, to hold, as ‘twere, the mirror up to nature” (3.2.21-23).

    這里的括號(hào)夾注表示引文來自劇本第三幕第二場(chǎng)的21至23行。(注意標(biāo)點(diǎn)的使用。)

    在引用詩(shī)歌時(shí)應(yīng)標(biāo)出引文的節(jié)、行,如:

    When Homer’s Odysseus comes to the hall of Circe, he finds his men “mild / in her soft spell, fed on her drug of evil” (10.209-11).

    這里的括號(hào)夾注表示引文來自詩(shī)歌第10節(jié)的209至211行。對(duì)不分節(jié)的詩(shī)第一次引用時(shí)應(yīng)說明括號(hào)里標(biāo)的是行數(shù),使用“l(fā)ine”,以后的引用則不需再說明。例如:

    第一次引用:(lines 5-8)

    以后的引用:(12-13)

    在引用有章節(jié)、分冊(cè)的小說的時(shí)候,應(yīng)標(biāo)出引文所在的頁(yè)碼、冊(cè)數(shù)、章節(jié),如:

    One of Kingsolver’s narrators, teenager Rachel, pushes her vocabulary beyond its limits. For example, Rachel complains that being forced to live in the Congo with her missionary family is “a sheer tapestry of justice” because her chances of finding a boyfriend are “dull and void” (117; bk. 2, ch. 10).

    例子里的括號(hào)夾注表示引文來自該書第二冊(cè)第十章的第117頁(yè)。(注意標(biāo)點(diǎn)和縮略語的使用。)

    在引用《圣經(jīng)》、《可蘭經(jīng)》等經(jīng)典文獻(xiàn)的時(shí)候,應(yīng)標(biāo)出引文的篇、章、節(jié),如:

    Consider the words of Solomon: “If your enemies are hungry, give them food to eat. If they are thirsty, give them water to drink” (Bible, Prov. 25.21).

    例子里的括號(hào)夾注表示引文來自舊約《圣經(jīng)》的《箴言》篇第25章第21節(jié)。《圣經(jīng)》各篇的縮寫有標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的寫法,因而使用時(shí)應(yīng)該注意核對(duì)。

    3.1.12 對(duì)引語文字的更改

    直接引語如出現(xiàn)在正文中間,使用引語的句子不得違反英語語法,不得出現(xiàn)“句中句”。圖3.1右邊一欄兩句句子均包含了引語,但均不合語法。

    正確:

    So it is not like what Luthi calls “enter[ing] effortlessly into fruitful contact with distant worlds” (63).

    正確:

    Max Luthi points out that the first apparent thing in the fairytale is that it portrays its hero as “isolated” and often as “an old child” (59). 錯(cuò)誤:

    So it is not like what Luthi calls “enter effortlessly into fruitful contact with distant worlds” (63).

    錯(cuò)誤:

    Max Luthi points out: “The first thing that is apparent in the fairytale …is that it portrays its hero as isolated. He is often an old child” (59).

    為了使含直接引語的句子合乎語法,往往有必要對(duì)引語的文字作一定的更改。如果要?jiǎng)h除引語中個(gè)別詞句,可以用省略號(hào)(ellipses“…”)取代刪除的詞句。如果要加入或者更改個(gè)別單詞或者詞組,則可以將需要加入或者更改的單詞或詞組放在方括號(hào)(square brackets“[ ]”)以內(nèi)。例如:

    刪除詞句:

    He stated, “The ‘placebo effect,’ ... disappeared when behaviors were studied in this manner” (Smith, 1982, p. 276), but he did not clarify which behaviors were studied.

    添加詞組:

    Smith (1982:276) found that “the placebo effect, which had been verified in previous studies, disappeared when [his own and others’] behaviors were studied in this manner.”

    無論刪改還是添加字詞均不得變更引語的原意。

    注意:如果刪除是在句內(nèi),應(yīng)該空一格以后再加省略號(hào)。如果刪除是在一句整句以后,則應(yīng)在該整句最后的標(biāo)點(diǎn)(句號(hào)、問號(hào)或驚嘆號(hào))不空格直接加省略號(hào)。省略號(hào)應(yīng)該用三個(gè)句點(diǎn)。

    3.1.13 腳注(footnotes)的使用

    在MLA的規(guī)范里,腳注只應(yīng)在下列兩種情況中考慮使用:(1)提供有一定重要性、但寫入正文將有損文本條理和邏輯的解釋性信息;(2)提供因篇幅過大不宜使用括號(hào)夾注注明的文獻(xiàn)出處信息。在APA的規(guī)范里腳注僅僅在上述第一種情況下可以使用。腳注應(yīng)該使用阿拉伯?dāng)?shù)字編號(hào)上標(biāo),每頁(yè)重新開始。在下面兩個(gè)例子中,前一個(gè)屬第一種情況,后一種屬第二種情況:

    The commentary of the sixteenth-century literary scholars Bernardo Segni and Lionardo Salviati shows them to be less-than-faithful followers of Aristotle1.

    ….

    Technological advancements have brought advantages as well as unexpected problems2.

    ————————————— Notes

    1 Examples are conveniently available in Weinberg. See Segni, Rettorica et poetica d'Aristotile (Firenze, 1549) 281, qtd. in Weinberg 1:405, and Salviati, Poetica d'Aristotle parafrasata e comnetata, 1586, ms. 2.2.11, Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, Firenze, 140v, qtd. in Weinberg 1:616-17.

    2 For a sampling of materials that reflect the range of experiences related to recent technological changes, see Moulthrop, pars. 39-53; Armstrong, Yang, and Cuneo 80-82; Craner 308-11.

    (第二個(gè)例子中“Moulthrop, pars. 39-53”中的“pars”指的是“段落”即paragraph。)

    在腳注中提到的文獻(xiàn)同正文中提到的一樣,都必須在正文后面的參考文獻(xiàn)著錄中詳細(xì)注明。

    腳注可使用單倍行距,但相鄰腳注之間應(yīng)空1.5行。腳注的字體必須與正文一樣。

    3.2 參考文獻(xiàn)著錄的格式

    參考文獻(xiàn)著錄在MLA規(guī)范里叫做Works Cited,在APA規(guī)范里叫做References。撰寫論文時(shí)應(yīng)仔細(xì)閱讀MLA或APA的規(guī)范手冊(cè),本節(jié)僅提供部分著錄實(shí)例,供參考。

    3.2.1 著錄已出版的文章

    一位作者寫的文章

    MLA:

    Stewart, Donald C. “What Is an English Major, and What Should It Be?” College Composition and Communication 40 (1989): 188-202.

    APA:

    Roediger, H. L. (1990). Implicit memory: A commentary. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 28, 373-380.

    注意:(1)在MLA規(guī)范里,作者的姓名應(yīng)完整,應(yīng)標(biāo)明首名的全稱和中間名的首字母。在APA里,作者的首名和中間名均應(yīng)用首字母。(2)在MLA規(guī)范里,期刊名與期刊卷數(shù)之間不用逗號(hào)。(3)在APA規(guī)范里期刊的卷數(shù)(即“28”)應(yīng)用斜體表示。(4)按MLA的規(guī)范,標(biāo)題第一個(gè)詞和冒號(hào)后第一個(gè)詞的首字母均必須大寫,而其余每一個(gè)詞的首字母,除冠詞、介詞、并列連詞以及不定式符號(hào)(“to”)以外都必須大寫。按APA的規(guī)范,標(biāo)題第一個(gè)詞和冒號(hào)后第一個(gè)詞的首字母必須大寫,而其余每一個(gè)詞的首字母,除專有名詞以外,均不需要大寫。

    兩位作者寫的文章

    MLA:

    Brownell, Hiram H., and Heather H. Potter. “Inference Deficits in Right-Brain Damaged Patients.” Brain and Language 27 (1986): 310-21.

    APA:

    Tulving, E., & Schacter, D. L. (1990). Priming and human memory systems. Science, 247, 301-305.

    兩位以上的作者寫的文章

    MLA:

    Mascia-Lees, Frances E., Pat Sharpe, and Colleen B. Cohen. “Double Liminality and the Black Woman Writer.” American Behavioral Scientist 31 (1987): 101-14.

    APA:

    Barringer, H. R., Takeuchi, D. T., & Xenos, P. C. (1990). Education, occupational prestige and income of Asian Americans: Evidence from the 1980 Census. Sociology of Education, 63, 27-43.

    無論用MLA 還是APA,第一作者以姓氏開始(加上逗號(hào)),繼以名字或者名字的首字母,但是從第二作者開始,在MLA規(guī)范里以名字開始,繼以姓氏,而在APA規(guī)范里以姓氏開始(加上逗號(hào)),繼以名字的首字母。

    如果作者人數(shù)超過三人,也可以考慮僅保留第一作者的名字,加上et al.(拉丁文 “and others”),如:

    MLA:

    Mascia-Lees, Frances E., et al. “Double Liminality and the Black Woman Writer.” American Behavioral Scientist 31 (1987): 101-14.

    APA:

    Barringer, H. R. et at. (1990). Education, occupational prestige and income of Asian Americans: Evidence from the 1980 Census. Sociology of Education, 63, 27-43.

    書評(píng)、影評(píng)、電視節(jié)目評(píng)論等(Review)

    MLA:

    Kidd, John. “The Scandal of Ulysses.” Rev. of Ulysses: The Corrected Text, by Hans Walter Gabler. New York Review of Books 30 June 1988: 32-39.

    APA:

    Falk, J. S. (1990). [Review of Narratives from the crib]. Language, 66, 558-562.

    收集在書籍中的文章(Selection from an edited book)

    MLA:

    Glover, David. “The Stuff That Dreams Are Made Of: Masculinity, Femininity, and the Thriller.” Gender, Genre and Narrative Pleasure. Ed. Derek Longhurst. London: Unwin Hyman, 1989. 67-83.

    APA:

    Wilson, S. F. (1990). Community support and integration: New directions for outcome research. In S. Rose (Ed.), Case management: An overview and assessment (pp. 13-42). White Plains, NY: Longman.

    注意:(1)“Ed.”代表“編”。(2)在MLA規(guī)范中,書的編者的姓和名均用全稱,在APA規(guī)范里,編者的姓用全稱,名用首字母。

    雜志中的文章

    MLA:

    Miller, Mark Crispen. “Massa, Come Home.” New Republic 16 Sept. 1981: 29-32.

    APA:

    Gibbs, N. (1989, April 24). How America has run out of time. Time, pp. 58-67.

    注意:著錄引用雜志中的文章應(yīng)標(biāo)明雜志的出版日期。

    報(bào)紙中的文章

    MLA:

    “Literacy on the job.” USA Today 27 Dec. 1988: 6B.

    APA:

    Freudenheim, M. (1987, December 29). Rehabilitation in head injuries in business and helath. New York Times, p. D2.

    百科全書中的文章(An entry in an encyclopedia)

    MLA:

    Mohanty, Jitendra M. “Indian Philosophy.” The New Encyclopaedia Britannica: Macropaedia. 15th ed. 1987.

    APA:

    Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The new encyclopedia britannica (Vol. 26, pp. 501-508). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica.

    政府文件(A government publication)

    MLA:

    United States. Natl. Council on Disability. Promises to Keep: A Decade of Federal Enforcement of the Americans with Disabilities Act. Washington: GPO, 2000.

    APA:

    National Institute of Mental Health. (1990). Clinical training in serious mental illness (DHHS Publication No. ADM 90-1679). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

    3.2.2 著錄已出版的書籍

    一位作者寫的書籍

    MLA:

    Graff, Gerald. Professing Literature: An Institutional History. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1987.

    APA:

    Rossi, P. H. (1989). Down and out in America: The origins of homelessness. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    注意不同規(guī)范里書籍標(biāo)題大小寫規(guī)則的不同。

    新版書(Book with a new edition)

    MLA:

    Erikson, Erik. Childhood and Society. 2nd ed. New York: Norton, 1963.

    APA:

    Kail, R. (1990). Memory development in children (3rd ed.). New York: Freeman.

    團(tuán)體作者(Book with a corporate author)寫的書籍

    MLA:

    College Board. College-bound Seniors: 1989 SAT Profile. New York: College Entrance Examination Board, 1989.

    APA:

    American Psychiatric Association. (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed., rev.). Washington, DC: Author.

    無作者書籍(Book with no author)

    MLA:

    Guidelines for the Workload of College English Teacher. Urbana: National Council of Teachers of English, 1987.

    APA:

    Standards for educational and psychological tests. (1985). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    編撰的書籍(Edited book)

    MLA:

    Kerckhove, Derrick de, and Charles J. Lumsden, eds. The Alphabet and the Brain: The Lateralization of Writing. Berlin Springer-¬Verlag, 1988.

    APA:

    Campbell, J. P., Campbell, R. J., & Associates. (Eds.). (1988). Productivity in organizations. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

    翻譯的書籍(Translated book)

    MLA:

    Lacan, Jacques. Ecrits: A Selection. Trans. Alan Sheridan. New York: Norton, 1977.

    APA:

    Michotte, A. E. (1963). The perception of causality (T. R. Miles & E. Miles, Trans.). London: Methuen. (Original work published 1946)

    注意在兩種規(guī)范里,翻譯者的名和姓均不需要改變次序。

    重版書(Republished book)

    MLA:

    Hurston, Zora Neale. Their Eyes Were Watching God. 1937.

    以上就是關(guān)于als或mla是什么意思相關(guān)問題的回答。希望能幫到你,如有更多相關(guān)問題,您也可以聯(lián)系我們的客服進(jìn)行咨詢,客服也會(huì)為您講解更多精彩的知識(shí)和內(nèi)容。


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